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The Electrical Nature of Storms
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Tutorial: BASIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
- T.1. Introduction 3
- T.2. Charge, Elementary Particles, and Ions 3
- T.3. Coulomb's Law and Electric Field 4
- T.4. Electrostatic Potential 6
- T.5. Electric Flux and Gauss's Law 10
- T.6. Electric Field On and Inside Conductors 12
- T.7. Charge Transport and Mobility 13
- T.8. Conduction in Gases and Breakdown Strength 15
- T.9. Dielectrics 15
- T.10. Polarization and Dipole Moment 16
- T.11. Induction Charging 17
- T.12. Capacitance and Capacitors 18
- T.13. Energy Storage 19
- T.14. Maxwell's Equations 19
- T.15. Electromagnetic Radiation 20
- T.16. Magnetic Induction 22
Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF THE ELECTRICAL NATURE OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
- 1.1. Brief History 23
- 1.2. Earth's Magnetic Field 25
- 1.3. The Ionosphere 25
- 1.4. Global Electrical Properties Below the Ionosphere
29
Chapter 2: ELECTRIFIED NON-THUNDERSTORM CLOUDS
- 2.1. Background 41
- 2.2. External Charging of Cloud Boundaries and Screening
Layers 42
- 2.3. Electrical Aspects of Different Cloud Genera 44
Chapter 3: INTRODUCTION TO THE ELECTRICAL NATURE OF THUNDERSTORMS
- 3.1. Introduction 49
- 3.2. The Gross Charge Structure of Thunderstorms 49
- 3.3. Current Flow in
Thunderstorms 53
- 3.4. Basic Concepts of Electrification 54
- 3.5. Cloud Electrification Mechanisms
61
Chapter 4: CORONA AND POINT DISCHARGE
- 4.1. Introduction 76
- 4.2. Corona Initiation 77
- 4.3. Positive and Negative Corona 78
- 4.4. Point Discharge in the Atmosphere
78
- 4.5. Undesirable Effects of Point Discharge on Measurements 82
Chapter: 5 LIGHTNING
- 5.1. Introduction 83
- 5.2. Types of Cloud Flashes 83
- 5.3. Types of Ground Flashes 84
- 5.4. Lightning Initiation 86
- 5.5. Location of Lightning Origins 88
- 5.6. Visible Characteristics of Ground
Flash Development 89
- 5.7. Return Stroke Velocity Measurements 91
- 5.8. Velocity of Other Ground
Flash Processes 91
- 5.9. Visual Aspects of Cloud Flashes 92
- 5.10. Overview of Lightning Theory
93
- 5.11. Temperature, Pressure, Electron Number Density, and Thunder 97
- 5.12.
Electromagnetic Radiation from Lightning 105
- 5.13. Electrical Current Flow
in Lightning 108
- 5.14. Schumann Resonances 114
- 5.15. Red Sprites and Blue Jets 116
Chapter 6: INSTRUMENTS
- 6.1. Electric Field Mills 118
- 6.2. Instruments to Measure Ealoft 122
- 6.3. Instrument for Current
Density Carried by Precipitation at Ground Level 131
- 6.4. Charge on Individual
Particles 132
- 6.5. Measurement of Small, Cloud Particles Aloft 138
- 6.6. Maxwell Current
Sensor 138
- 6.7. Point-Discharge Sensor 139
- 6.8. Ionic Conductivity 140
- 6.9. Lightning Parameters 143
- 6.10. Lightning-Locating Techniques 145
Chapter 7: OBSERVATIONS OF THE ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THUNDERSTORMS
PART I: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
- 7.1. Introduction 163
- 7.2. Typical History of Egnd Beneath a
Thunderstorm 166
- 7.3. Small-Ion Space Charge During Fair Weather and Convection
168
- 7.4. Small-Ion Space Charge In and Near Electrified Clouds 169
- 7.5. Conductivity
Near and In Storms--Theoretical Discussion 170
- 7.6. Conductivity Near and
In Storms--Measurements 170
- 7.7. Electric Field Aloft 172
- 7.8. Electric Field and Particle Charges in
Anvils 178
- 7.9. Vertical Profiles of Total Space Charge Density 178
- 7.10. Precipitation
Charge and Current at the Ground 179
- 7.11. Maxwell Current 181
- 7.12. Simultaneous Measurements of Ealoft and
Precipitation Charge 182
- 7.13. Introduction to Lightning Observations in the
Context of Thunderstorms 185
- 7.14 Global Flash Rate and Percentage of Flashes
over Land and Water 187
- 7.15. Relative Proportions of Different Flash Types
190
- 7.16. Lightning Height and Spatial Extent 192
- 7.17. Lightning Location Relative
to Storm Structure 206
- 7.18. Characteristics of Storms Indicative of Lightning
Production 216
- 7.19. Lightning-Rainfall Relationships 225
- 7.20. Typical Evolution of Lightning
Activity Relative to Storm Evolution 229
- 7.21. Conceptual Models of Influences
on Flash Rate and Type 230
Chapter 8: OBSERVATIONS OF THE ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THUNDERSTORMS
PART II: SEVERE, WINTER, AND TROPICAL STORMS AND STORM SYSTEMS
- 8.1. Severe and Supercell Thunderstorms 235
- 8.2. Mesoscale Convective Systems
258
- 8.3. Winter Thunderstorms 286
- 8.4. Tropical Thunderstorms and Non-Thunderstorm
Clouds 292
- 8.5. Tropical Cyclones 301
Chapter 9: NUMERICAL MODELS OF THUNDERSTORM ELECTRIFICATION
- 9.1. Introduction 304
- 9.2. Cloud Model Parameterization 305
- 9.3. Brief History of Electrification
Modeling 310
- 9.4. Parameterization of Electrical Processes 312
- 9.5. Some Themes of Electrification
Model Research 329
Chapter 10: ELECTRICAL EFFECTS ON CLOUD MICROPHYSICS
- 10.1. Relevant Characteristics and Terminology for Hydrometeors 337
- 10.2.
Maximum Charge Possible on a Drop 339
- 10.3 Changes in Drop Shape and Terminal
Fall Velocity 339
- 10.4. Disruption of Drops 341
- 10.5. Drop Nucleation and Electrofreezing
344
- 10.6. Scavenging of Aerosols 344
- 10.7. Changes in Collision Efficiency 346
- 10.8. Coalescence and Mass Growth
of Drops 348
- 10.9. Growth of Ice Particles 352
- 10.10. Changes in Alignment of Hydrometeors
from E 355
- 10.11. Precipitation Intensification Associated with Lightning
356
- 10.12. Effects on Atmospheric Chemistry 360
APPENDIX A: LIST OF SYMBOLS 363
APPENDIX B: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 366
REFERENCES 369
INDEX 405-422
NSSL Home | Books | The Electrical Nature of Storms | Table of Contents | Alphabetical
References | Errata