Table of Contents
For The Electrical Nature of Storms by MacGorman and Rust
Tutorial: BASIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
T.1. Introduction 3
T.2. Charge, Elementary Particles, and Ions 3
T.3. Coulomb's Law and Electric Field 4
T.4. Electrostatic Potential 6
T.5. Electric Flux and Gauss's Law 10
T.6. Electric Field On and Inside Conductors 12
T.7. Charge Transport and Mobility 13
T.8. Conduction in Gases and Breakdown Strength 15
T.9. Dielectrics 15
T.10. Polarization and Dipole Moment 16
T.11. Induction Charging 17
T.12. Capacitance and Capacitors 18
T.13. Energy Storage 19
T.14. Maxwell's Equations 19
T.15. Electromagnetic Radiation 20
T.16. Magnetic Induction 22
Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF THE ELECTRICAL NATURE OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
1.1. Brief History 23
1.2. Earth's Magnetic Field 25
1.3. The Ionosphere 25
1.4. Global Electrical Properties Below the Ionosphere 29
Chapter 2: ELECTRIFIED NON-THUNDERSTORM CLOUDS
2.1. Background 41
2.2. External Charging of Cloud Boundaries and Screening Layers 42
2.3. Electrical Aspects of Different Cloud Genera 44
Chapter 3: INTRODUCTION TO THE ELECTRICAL NATURE OF THUNDERSTORMS
3.1. Introduction 49
3.2. The Gross Charge Structure of Thunderstorms 49
3.3. Current Flow in Thunderstorms 53
3.4. Basic Concepts of Electrification 54
3.5. Cloud Electrification Mechanisms 61
Chapter 4: CORONA AND POINT DISCHARGE
4.1. Introduction 76
4.2. Corona Initiation 77
4.3. Positive and Negative Corona 78
4.4. Point Discharge in the Atmosphere 78
4.5. Undesirable Effects of Point Discharge on Measurements 82
Chapter: 5 LIGHTNING
5.1. Introduction 83
5.2. Types of Cloud Flashes 83
5.3. Types of Ground Flashes 84
5.4. Lightning Initiation 86
5.5. Location of Lightning Origins 88
5.6. Visible Characteristics of Ground Flash Development 89
5.7. Return Stroke Velocity Measurements 91
5.8. Velocity of Other Ground Flash Processes 91
5.9. Visual Aspects of Cloud Flashes 92
5.10. Overview of Lightning Theory 93
5.11. Temperature, Pressure, Electron Number Density, and Thunder 97
5.12. Electromagnetic Radiation from Lightning 105
5.13. Electrical Current Flow in Lightning 108
5.14. Schumann Resonances 114
5.15. Red Sprites and Blue Jets 116
Chapter 6: INSTRUMENTS
6.1. Electric Field Mills 118
6.2. Instruments to Measure Ealoft 122
6.3. Instrument for Current Density Carried by Precipitation at Ground Level 131
6.4. Charge on Individual Particles 132
6.5. Measurement of Small, Cloud Particles Aloft 138
6.6. Maxwell Current Sensor 138
6.7. Point-Discharge Sensor 139
6.8. Ionic Conductivity 140
6.9. Lightning Parameters 143
6.10. Lightning-Locating Techniques 145
Chapter 7: OBSERVATIONS OF THE ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THUNDERSTORMS (PART I: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS)
7.1. Introduction 163
7.2. Typical History of Egnd Beneath a Thunderstorm 166
7.3. Small-Ion Space Charge During Fair Weather and Convection 168
7.4. Small-Ion Space Charge In and Near Electrified Clouds 169
7.5. Conductivity Near and In Storms--Theoretical Discussion 170
7.6. Conductivity Near and In Storms--Measurements 170
7.7. Electric Field Aloft 172
7.8. Electric Field and Particle Charges in Anvils 178
7.9. Vertical Profiles of Total Space Charge Density 178
7.10. Precipitation Charge and Current at the Ground 179
7.11. Maxwell Current 181
7.12. Simultaneous Measurements of Ealoft and Precipitation Charge 182
7.13. Introduction to Lightning Observations in the Context of Thunderstorms 185
7.14 Global Flash Rate and Percentage of Flashes over Land and Water 187
7.15. Relative Proportions of Different Flash Types 190
7.16. Lightning Height and Spatial Extent 192
7.17. Lightning Location Relative to Storm Structure 206
7.18. Characteristics of Storms Indicative of Lightning Production 216
7.19. Lightning-Rainfall Relationships 225
7.20. Typical Evolution of Lightning Activity Relative to Storm Evolution 229
7.21. Conceptual Models of Influences on Flash Rate and Type 230
Chapter 8: OBSERVATIONS OF THE ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THUNDERSTORMS (PART II: SEVERE, WINTER, AND TROPICAL STORMS AND STORM SYSTEMS)
8.1. Severe and Supercell Thunderstorms 235
8.2. Mesoscale Convective Systems 258
8.3. Winter Thunderstorms 286
8.4. Tropical Thunderstorms and Non-Thunderstorm Clouds 292
8.5. Tropical Cyclones 301
Chapter 9: NUMERICAL MODELS OF THUNDERSTORM ELECTRIFICATION
9.1. Introduction 304
9.2. Cloud Model Parameterization 305
9.3. Brief History of Electrification Modeling 310
9.4. Parameterization of Electrical Processes 312
9.5. Some Themes of Electrification Model Research 329
Chapter 10: ELECTRICAL EFFECTS ON CLOUD MICROPHYSICS
10.1. Relevant Characteristics and Terminology for Hydrometeors 337
10.2. Maximum Charge Possible on a Drop 339
10.3 Changes in Drop Shape and Terminal Fall Velocity 339
10.4. Disruption of Drops 341
10.5. Drop Nucleation and Electrofreezing 344
10.6. Scavenging of Aerosols 344
10.7. Changes in Collision Efficiency 346
10.8. Coalescence and Mass Growth of Drops 348
10.9. Growth of Ice Particles 352
10.10. Changes in Alignment of Hydrometeors from E 355
10.11. Precipitation Intensification Associated with Lightning 356
10.12. Effects on Atmospheric Chemistry 360
APPENDIX A: LIST OF SYMBOLS 363
APPENDIX B: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 366
REFERENCES 369
INDEX 405-422